丝绸之路开通于西汉，是从东亚开始，经中亚、西亚进而联结欧洲及北非的东西方交通线路的总称。丝绸之路的开辟，有力地促进了东西方之间的经济文化交流，对促成汉朝走向兴盛产生了积极的作用。这条丝绸之路，至今仍是中西交往的一条重要通路。
The Silk Road is the generic term for East - West transit lines connecting the Orient and the Occident. With the starting point in the ancient capital city of Chang ' an (present - day Xi ' an), passing through Central Asia and West Asia, the Silk Road ends up in Europe and the North Africa. The opening of the Silk Road during the Western Han Dynasty has effectively promoted the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West and contributed to the rise of the Han Dynasty. Even today, the Silk Road remains an important thoroughfare for exchanges between China and western countries.
>从丝绸说起
中国是世界上最早养蚕和制造丝绸的国家。据史籍记载，中国人用蚕丝织成衣料，至今已有近五千年的历史。在远古传说中，黄河流域部落联盟首领黄帝的妻子嫘祖是第一个教人们养蚕缫丝、织造衣料的人，被尊为"先蚕娘娘"。1926年，山西夏县的新石器时代遗址中曾出土有蚕茧的茧壳；1958年浙江吴兴的新石器时代遗址中曾出土有碳化了的丝绒、丝带和绢片，经测定，其年代距今约4750年。可见在新石器时代晚期，黄河流域和长江下游地区的先民已经开始了丝织业。
> Starting from Silk
China was the first country in the world that engaged in sericulture and silk production. According to historical records, the history of using woven silk materials to make clothes dated back to almost five thousand years. As legend has it, Leizu, wife of Yellow Emperor who was head of the Alliance of Tribes in the Yellow River Valley, was the first person who taught native people the skills of sericulture, silk reeling and weaving. She was revered as Empress Silkworm. In 1926, cocoon shells were unearthed from ruins of the Neolithic Age in Xia County, Shanxi Province; in 1958 carbonized velvet, silk ribbons and silk scraps were unearthed from the Neolithic ruins in Wuxing of Zhejiang Province. After testing, it was confirmed that the silk pieces were made some four thousand seven hundred and fifty years ago. It is evident that Chinese ancestors inhabited in the downstream areas of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River already engaged in silk production during the late Neolithic Age.
>丝绸之路的盛衰
西汉末年，由于汉朝政局混乱，对西域地区的统治废弛，匈奴势力乘虚而入，导致丝绸之路中断。东汉王朝建立后，玉门关、阳关以西的大片国土依然在匈奴统治之下，中原与西域和中亚各国的交往也一度中断。东汉明帝永平年间(58-75)，随着国力的恢复与发展，明帝"欲遵武帝故事，击匈奴，通西域"。
永平十五年（72)，大将窦固奉命率军出使西域，联络西域小国共同对付匈奴。汉军中有一位下级军官班超很受他器重。永平十六年，窦固任命班超"假司马"的官职，带领36名随从先行到西域去。班超一行首先到达了鄯善国。一开始都善国王对班超等人热情备至，不久却变得冷淡起来。班超发现匈奴也派来了使臣，胁迫鄯善王背叛汉朝，投靠匈奴，鄯善王一时拿不定主意。班超与随行的36人商议，认为"不入虎穴，焉得虎子"。于是他率众人带着武器潜行到匈奴使团住所，将匈奴130余人杀得片甲不存。第二天，班超拎着匈奴使臣的首级去见鄯善王，鄯善王吓得面色如土，表示一心一意归附汉朝。窦固把班超出使立功的事上奏汉明帝，汉明帝对班超大加赞赏，并且正式任命他为汉使。此后，班超奉命出使于阗（今新疆和田），重新开通了丝绸之路。又经过多年的经营，西域诸国尽皆臣服于汉朝。
汉代的丝绸之路从长安经河西走廊，之后分为南、北两道：南道是出敦煌西南的阳关西行，沿昆仑山的北麓经过于阗（今新疆和田）、莎车、蒲犁（今塔什库尔干），越过葱岭，直到大月氏，继续西行可到安息（今伊朗）和地中海的大秦（古罗马帝国）；或由大月氏向南入身毒（古印度）；北道是自敦煌西北的玉门关西行，经车师前国（今新疆吐鲁番附近），沿天山南麓西行，经焉耆、疏勒至大宛。
为了进一步与西方国家建立联系，汉和帝永元九年（97），班超派甘英为使者出使大秦国。甘英一行从龟兹（今新疆库车）出发，经条支（今伊拉克）、安息诸国，到达安息西界的波斯湾。安息国向来以中国的丝织品与罗马交易，所以不愿汉朝与罗马直接通商，于是向甘英渲染渡海的艰险与困难，使甘英止步而返。甘英这次出使虽然没能与罗马进行直接接触，但却是中国人首次到达地中海东岸，而且还带回了大量关于中亚、印度、西亚、罗马等地的情报。此后，中西通商也进一步走向繁荣。丝绸之路在东汉时期逐渐发展成为一个连接沿线各国的交通网，同东汉通商交往的国家也大为增加。公元166年，大秦王安敦（即罗马皇帝可·奥勒留）派使者来到东汉拜访，拉开了中国与欧洲国家友好往来的序幕。
三国时期（220-280)，丝绸之路又有了新的发展，不仅在葱岭高原以西继续延伸，而且在两汉时期的南道和北道以外，在天山北麓又增辟了一条新道，成为"三道"。魏晋南北朝时期（220-589)，由于中国长期处于分裂状态，经营西域和丝绸之路的能力受到很大影响。但是，丝绸之路在这一时期并未中断，有些方面还呈现出繁荣的景象。尤其是随着佛教的东传，大量印度、中亚的佛教僧侣来到中国，为中国的佛教和文化带来了活力，其中最著名的是高僧鸠摩罗什（344-413)。同时，中国的佛教僧人与学者也开始了西行求法的活动，如公元399年前往古印度求法的法显和尚等，他们都是沿着丝绸之路往来的。此外，由于中原战乱频繁，许多汉人沿着丝绸之路向西逃避战火，也促进了中国文化的西传。
隋唐时期（581-907)，中国结束了长期的分裂局面，社会经济与文化繁荣发展，国力空前强大。朝廷也将加强中西方的联系与往来、维护丝绸之路的畅通作为重要的国策之一。隋炀帝在位时，已经有意识地经营丝绸之路，与西域各国联系密切。唐太宗贞观四年(630)，唐军击败了之前占据丝路的东突厥政权，并和西突厥加强了友好联系，接着又扫除了高昌、焉耆、龟兹等分裂势力。贞观十四年(640)，唐朝在西域地区设立了安西大都护府，进一步加强了西部边疆的军事和行政管理，保证了丝路的繁荣畅通。不久以后，唐朝政府又完成了对漠北地区的统一，加强了漠北与中原之间的联系，而且开辟了西部与北部边疆往来的通道。当时在丝绸之路的主要干线之外，还开辟了很多支路，南北交通更加发达。贞观三年（629）唐代高僧玄奘前往古印度取经求法时，经过高昌、焉耆、龟兹等地，走了一段丝绸之路，而后越过天山，辗转进入印度次大陆，这说明了丝路的支线之多。
唐代丝绸的织造技术大为提高，产品名目繁多，花色更加新颖，尤其是花鸟纹锦，不仅布局紧凑和谐，而且色彩鲜艳富丽，代表了当时织锦技术的最高水平。波斯和阿拉伯商人常把大宗的中国丝绸贩运到西方，当时的东罗马帝国是中国丝绸最大的进口国。
丝绸之路在唐代前期蓬勃发展，进入了黄金时期。但到了唐代中期，随着海上航路日益发达，越来越多的西方商人改为航海来到中国，丝绸之路出现了衰落的趋势。天宝十四载（755)，节度使安禄山发起叛乱，"安史之乱"爆发。唐朝驻守西部边疆四镇的军队调往长安，一时西北边防空虚，吐蕃人乘机北上，占据了河陇地区，回鹘人又南下控制了阿尔泰山一带，唐朝政府从此失去了对西域的控制。一时间，丝绸之路上"道路梗绝，往来不通"。
北宋时期，由于中原的汉族政权相对较弱，控制区域有限，与西域和外国的内陆贸易受阻，丝绸之路并不畅通。而南宋时期，由于朝廷的大力扶植，加之造船技术的进步，海路成为中国对外交流和贸易的重心，陆上丝绸之路几乎遭到废弃。
13世纪，蒙古帝国在北方草原崛起，成吉思汗率领蒙古骑兵经过三次西征，先后征服了北亚、中亚和西亚的广大地区。元朝攻灭西夏、金、南宋，统一中国后，又建立了发达的驿站制度，丝绸之路再度繁荣起来。欧洲各国的使者、传教士和商人纷纷沿着丝绸之路来到中国，著名的意大利旅行家马可·波罗就是在这个时期到达中国的。马可·波罗（1254-1324）出生于一个威尼斯商人家庭。1275年5月，他随父亲、叔父和元朝的使者从威尼斯出发，经过丝绸之路到达元朝上都（今内蒙古多伦县西北）。年轻有为的马可·波罗受到元世祖忽必烈的重用，曾经以钦差大臣的身份到达中国及东南亚的许多地方。1291年，他奉元世祖之命送国书到法国、英国及西班牙，顺道从海路返回欧洲，1295年返抵威尼斯。他在回忆录《马可·波罗游记》中记录了东方城市的富饶物产和绮丽风光。书中还详细记载了敦煌地区古老的丧葬习俗，描述了酒泉地区"环以墙垣之城村"的风貌，对于寺庙林立、城池严整的张掖和盛产牦牛、小麦、麝香的武威也有不少生动的记录。这本书从地理、经济、文化等各方面都开阔了欧洲人的眼界，为欧洲了解中国起了很重要的作用。
明太祖洪武二十四年（1391),明军攻占哈密。1406年明成祖设置哈密卫，作为经略西域的基地，亦同时与西域各国建立了朝贡关系。1472年，蒙古察合台后王率兵攻陷哈密，明军被迫退守嘉峪关，关外的西域地区陷于四分五裂之中。虽然民间的地区贸易往来依然在丝绸之路上进行，但之前的繁荣景象已不复存在。15世纪，由于奥斯曼帝国占领了东罗马帝国的首都君士坦丁堡，欧洲与中国的陆路交通变得越来越困难，欧洲人不得不寻求新的通商道路。随着造船技术和航海技术的发展，越来越多的欧洲人想要通过海路到达东方。1498年，葡萄牙航海家达·迦马发现了印度洋航线，海上的新航路就此开辟，通过海路到达中国的西方人日渐增多。15世纪以后，丝绸之路逐渐成为了记录中外交往历史的遗迹。
> Vicissitudes of the Silk Road
During late years of the Western Han Dynasty when chaos prevailed the political arena, the imperial court relaxed its governance of the Western Regions. Taking advantage of this opportunity the Hun forces fought back and the Silk Road was interrupted. After the establishment of the Eastern Han Dynasty, large tracts of land west of the Yumenguan Pass and the Yangguan Pass were still controlled by the Huns. Communication between the Central Plains and the Western Regions was stilled interrupted. During Yongping Period of Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han Dynasty (58-75), with the recovery and development of national strength, Emperor Ming " intends to emulate Emperor Wu to fight the Huns and link - up with the Western Regions."
In the 15th year of the YongpingPeriod (72). General Dou Gu was ordered by the Emperor to led an army to proceed to the Western Regions. His errand was to contact small countries in the Western Regions and form an alliance with them to deal with the Huns. Ban Chao, a junior officer in the Han army was given high regard. In the 16th year of the Yongping Period. Dou Gu appointed Ban Chao as the " Acting Military General " and sent him to lead thirty - six men to the Western Regions. Ban Chao and his retinue first arrived in Shanshan Kingdom. At the beginning, the Shanshan king was very hospital towards the Han envoy. But soon his attitude changed into one of indifference. Ban Chao found the Huns had also sent envoys to Shanshan and they exerted pressure on the Shanshan king to betray the Han Dynasty and surrender to the Huns. The Shanshan king was hesitating. Ban Chao consulted with his thirty - six men retinue and concluded that " no risk, no gain ". So he led his men to steal into the residence of the Huns mission and killed all the one hundred and thirty mission members. On the following day Ban Chao called on the Shanshan king, carrying with him the severed head of the Huns envoy. The Shanshan king was so scared that he agreed to pledge allegiance to the Han Dynasty . Dou Gu reported Ban Chao ' s heroic deeds to Emperor Ming who was so pleased and appointed Ban Chao as the Han envoy to Shanshan Kingdom. Since then Ban Chao was sent on a resident mission to Khotan (present - day Hetian) where he re - opened the Silk Road. After years of operation, all countries in Central Asia pledged allegiance to the Han Dynasty.
The Han Dynasty Silk Road starts from Chang ' an and divides into two routes after passing the Hexi Corridor. The southern route goes westwards from the Yangguan Pass located in the southwest of Dunhuang. It then follows the northern foot of the Kunlun Mountain, passing through Khotan (Hetian), Shache and Puli (present - day Tashkurgan), crossing the Congling Ridges and reaches Dayuezhi. Further westwards the route reaches Anxi (present - day Iran) and Dagin (ancient Roman Empire) at the Mediterranean; alternatively, the route proceeds southwards from Dayuezhi to reach Shendu (ancient India). The northern route goes westwards from the Yumenguan Pass located northwest of Dunhuang. Passing the Former Cheshi Kingdom (present - day Turpan), it goes westwards along the southern foot of the Tianshan Mountain and reaches Dayuan after passing through the kingdoms of Yanqi and Shule .
In order to enhance relations with western countries, Ban Chao sent Gan Ying as his special envoy to Daqin Kingdom (ancient Roman Empire) on the 9th year of the Yongyuan Period (97) during the reign of Emperor He . Gan Ying and his retinue set off from Qiuci (present - day Kuche in Xinjiang) and passed through countries such as Tiaozhi (present - day Iraq) and Anxi and arrived at the Persian Gulf which bordered Anxi to the east. Because Anxi had always been trading with the Romans in Chinese silk, it was reluctant to see the establishment of direct trading relations between the Han Dynasty and the Roman Empire. So Anxi ' s officials exaggerated the difficulties and dangers in crossing the sea to Gan Ying, aiming at stopping the Han envoy to meet the Romans. Although Gan Ying did not contact the Romans directly on this trip. he managed to reach the east coast of the Mediterranean and collected much information on Central Asia, India, West Asia and Rome. Since then trade between China and western countries further expanded. Silk Road became a transportation network connecting countries along it during the Eastern Han Dynasty. The number of countries having trade relations with the Eastern Han Dynasty increased significantly. In 166, King of Daqin Andun, i. e. Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, sent an envoy to Eastern Han, thus opened the prelude to friendly exchanges between China and European countries.
Silk Road enjoyed new development during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280). It not only continued its extension west of the Congling Plateau, but also opened a new route along the northern foot of the Tianshan Mountain, thus increasing the Silk Road routes to three. During the Wei, Jin and the Southern and Northern Dynasty periods (220-589), due to China ' s long - term division, the administration ' s capacity in managing the Western Regions and operating the Silk Road was adversely affected. Fortunately, the Silk Road was not interrupted during this period. Some aspects of the road even showed signs of prosperity. In particular, the eastwards dissemination of Buddhism brought a large number of monks from India and Central Asia to China, bringing vigor and vitality to Chinese Buddhism and culture. The most famous was the master monk Kum ä rajiva (344-413). At the same time, Chinese Buddhist monks and scholars also traveled to the Western Regions to seek Buddhist Dharma. For instance, in 399, monk Faxian traveled to ancient Indian via the Silk Road. In addition, frequent wars and chaos inflicted upon the Central Plains area forced many Han Chinese to flee westwards along the Silk Road to avoid the fighting. This also accelerated the dissemination of Chinese culture to the Western Regions.
The Sui and the Tang Dynasty Period (581-907) witnessed the development and prosperity of socio - economy and culture after the termination of a long period of disunity. National strength was unprecedentedly powerful. The imperial court made the strengthening of contacts and exchanges with western region countries and maintaining the smooth flow of the Silk Road one of the essential national policies. Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty pursued a policy featured by conscientious operation of the Silk Road and close ties with countries in the Western regions. In the 4th year of the Zhenguan Period (630) of Emperor Taizong ' s reign in the Tang Dynasty, Tang army defeated the Eastern Turks regime that occupied part of the Silk Road formerly and strengthened friendly ties with the Western Turks. Later the Tang army wiped out other separatist forces such as the Gaochang, Yanqi and Qiuci. In the 14th year of the Zhenguan Period (640), the imperial court of the Tang Dynasty set up a military administration in the Western Regions to strengthen its governance of the western frontier and to ensure smooth operation and prosperity of the Silk Road. Shortly after, the Tang Dynasty government unified the Mobei region, hence strengthened the links between the Mobei region and the Central Plains, and opened up a communication channel between the western region and the northern frontier. At that time, in addition to the trunk routes, many sub - routes of the Silk Road were also opened. This had further facilitated the north - south traffic. In the 3rd year of the Zhenguan Period (629) when Xuanzang, a master monk of the Tang Dynasty, traveled to ancient India to look for Buddhist Dharma, he passed through Gaochang. Yanqi and Qiuci areas, which were all part of the Silk Road. He then crossed the Tianshan Mountain and entered the Indian subcontinent, an evidence of the existence of sub - routes of the Silk Road.
Silk weaving technology was greatly improved during the Tang Dynasty with many varieties of silk products with fancy designs produced. Among them silk brocades with birds and flower patterns were not only harmoniously laid out, but also had dazzling colors, representing the highest level of brocade production technology. Persian and Arab traders often shipped large quantities of Chinese silk to the Western Regions. The then Eastern Roman Empire was the largest importer of Chinese silk.
The Silk Road flourished in early years of the Tang Dynasty when it entered a golden period of development. Yet by mid - Tang, with the increase of sea routes, more and more western merchants came to China by the seaway. Silk Road showed signs of decline. In the 14th year of the Tianbao Period (755) local military and administrative official An Lushan launched an armed rebellion. The Tang army stationed on the four western frontier towns was called back to Chang ' an to safeguard the capital. Taking this opportunity of the unguarded northwest frontier, Tibetan troops in the south occupied the Helong area, and the Uighurs in the north controlled the Altai area. By then the Tang Dynasty government lost control of the Western Regions. For the time being the Silk Road was " interrupted and inaccessible ". During the Northern Song Dynasty, the relatively weak Han regime ruling the Central Plains controlled only a limited area. Its trade with the Western Regions and Foreign countries also suffered impediment. The Silk Road was not open. By the time of the Southern Song Dynasty, as a result of the vigorous support from the imperial court, coupled with advances in the shipbuilding technology, sea routes became the major channel for China ' s external communication and trade. Land route Silk Road was almost abandoned.
In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire in the northern grasslands rose. Led by Genghis Khan the Mongolian cavalry took three expeditions to the Western Regions and conquered vast areas of North Asia, Central Asia and West Asia. Having conquered kingdoms of West Xia, Jin, and the Southern Song, the Yuan rulers unified China and set up a well - developed posthouse system, which enabled the Silk Road to flourish again. Emissaries, missionaries and merchants from European countries came to China by way of the Silk Road. The famous Italian traveler Marco Polo was among them. Born to a merchant family in Venice, Marco Polo (1254-1324) traveled along the Silk Road in May 1275 together with his father, uncle and a Yuan Dynasty envoy from Venice and arrived in Shangdu (northwest of Duolun County of present - day Inner Mongolia). Young Marco Polo was greatly adored by the Yuan Emperor Kublai Khan who even sent him as the imperial envoy on missions to many parts of China and other Southeast Asian countries. In 1291, Marco Polo took the order from Kublai Khan to deliver credentials to France, the United Kingdom and Spain and returned to Europe via the seaway. He arrived in Venice in 1295. In his memoirs Marco Polo, he recorded the rich and beautiful oriental cities that he had visited. The book also documented ancient burial customs in Dunhuang, described landscapes in Jiuquan where " walls are built around the city ". He also recorded the neat layout and forest - like temple buildings in Zhangye and the large yak population, rich wheat and musk in Wuwei. The book played an important role in helping the Europeans to understand China by broadening their horizons in facets of geography, economics, culture and others.
In the 24th year of the Hongwu Period of Emperor Taizu (1391), the Ming army captured Hami. In 1406, Emperor Chengzu established an office (Wei) in Hami to serve as the base for implementing its economic policies in the Western Regions. The Ming government also established tributary relations with countries in the Western Regions. In 1472, the Mongolian Chagatai Khan led his army to attack and captured Hami. The Ming army was forced to retreat to Jiayuguan Pass, leaving the regions beyond the Jiayuguan Pass falling apart. Although local trade among civil society still went on along the Silk Road, the booming prosperity no longer existed. In the 15th century, with the Ottoman Empire ' s occupation of Constantinople, capital city of the Eastern Roman Empire, land transportation in Europe and China became all the more difficult. Europeans had to explore new trading routes. With the advancement of shipbuilding and marine technology, more and more Europeans attempted to travel to the East by the sea. In 1498, a Portuguese navigator D. Gama discovered the Indian Ocean route, thus opened up a new route on the sea. Westerners coming to China via the sea route increased gradually. Since the 15th century, Silk Road gradually became a relic of China ' s history of exchanges with foreign countries.
