丝路上的交流与往来
Exchanges and Contacts on the Silk Road
随着丝绸之路的开通与繁荣,中原地区先进的生产技术和古老的华夏文明逐渐传播到了西域各国,进而传入中亚、欧洲和非洲; 而西方的工艺技术、特产以及文化艺术也经由西域传入了中国。
The creation and success of the Silk Road played a crucial role in gradually spreading sophisticated production methods and ancient cultural practices from the Central Plains to regions in the West. This dissemination extended further into Central Asia, Europe, and Africa. Simultaneously, it facilitated the transfer of Western countries' manufacturing techniques, unique goods, and diverse cultural and artistic expressions into China through the route of the Western Regions.
>中原技术与文化的西传
> Westward Dissemination of Central Plains Technology and Culture
有人认为,中西文化交流,在古代主要是从东往西,是由于中华文明在近代以前长期居于世界领先地位。因为中国古代的许多重要物质文化,诸如丝绸、瓷器、茶叶以及许多重大工艺与发明,诸如造纸术、印刷术与火药等,都是经由丝绸之路传播到西方的。
A prevalent perspective suggests that cultural exchanges between the East and West in ancient times primarily flowed from the East to the West. This viewpoint stems from the prolonged global influence of Chinese civilization throughout history until modern times. For example, significant elements of material culture originating in ancient China, like silk, porcelain, tea, and pivotal technologies such as papermaking, printing, and gunpowder, were transmitted to the West through the Silk Road.
蚕桑和丝织的西传
Westward Dissemination of Sericulture and Silk Weaving Technology
在通过丝绸之路外销到西方的商品中,当然以丝绸最为著名。关于桑蚕种子及相关技术的外传,玄奘在《大唐西域记》中记载了一个传闻:大约在公元420—440年左右,即丝路重开之后,位于今新疆于阗地区的瞿撒旦那邦国国王为丝绸的华美所倾倒,曾经派遣使者向中原王朝的汉人求购桑蚕种子,结果不仅遭到拒绝,而且引起了朝廷的警觉,边关驿站对过境人员加强了盘查,严防桑蚕种子外流。后来国王又改向汉人求婚,在迎娶公主的时候,暗中通知新娘带出桑蚕种子。这位公主偷偷将一些蚕种藏在头发之中,带到了瞿撒旦那邦国, 随她而去的还有一些养蚕织丝的妇女。她们在那里造了一座“射鹿城”,专门教授该国妇女种桑养蚕,不久这个国家就桑荫密布,养蚕缫丝很快普及开来。根据考古发掘,在罗布泊沙海和鄙善古国遗址中都发现了古桑树的遗迹。据鉴定,这些古桑树为公元4世纪以前所栽种,大约正是传闻中蚕桑西传开始的时间。
Among the commodities exported to the West through the Silk Road, silk was naturally the most famous item.In his book Buddhist Records of the Western World, Xuan Zang recorded the following story about the dissemination of the sericulture technology: around the time of 420-440 when the Silk Road was re-opened, king of Qusadanna Kingdom, located in present-day Khotan in Xinjiang, was so impressed by the elegance and beauty of silk from China So he sent his envoy to the Centra Plains and requested to buy silkworm eggs and mulberry seeds from the Han Chinese. The request was not only turned down, but also raised the alarm of the imperial court who strengthened its interrogation and examination of people crossing the border or staying at the posthouses, in order to prevent the outflow of mulberry seeds and silkworm eggs. Later the Qusadanna king proposed marriage to a Han princess. When he came to receive his bride, he tipped he to bring silkworm eggs and mulberry seeds. The princess secretly hid some silkworm eggs in her hair and brought them to her new home. She also brought with her some women who had the skills of sericulture and silk weaving. When they arrived in Qusadanna, they built a "deer-shooting city" where they taught local women to grow mulberry trees and raise silkworms. Not long after the country was full of mulberry trees.Sericulture and silk reeling were quickly popularized. According to archaeological findings, remains of ancient mulberry trees have been unearthed both in the Lop Nur sand sea and ruins of the ancient Shanshan Kingdom. It has been identified that these ancient mulberry trees were planted before the 4th century, which was just about the time when mulberry an silkworm were allegedly spread to the West.
罗马历史学家普罗科匹厄斯认为,中国的蚕桑是在公元550年左右传入东罗马帝国的。在查士丁尼大帝执政期间,曾有一位久居中国的印度僧人来到东罗马帝国都城君士坦丁堡,向查士丁尼大帝表示自己精通养蚕术,而且可以弄到蚕卵。与皇帝达成某种协议后,这位僧人又返回中国,两年后他将蚕种藏在空心手杖中带回了罗马。这样,罗马人终于可以自己生产一部分丝绸原料了。
As per the account of Roman historian Procopius, Chinese sericulture found its way to the Eastern Roman Empire circa 550 CE. During the rule of Emperor Justinian the Great, an Indian monk, having resided in China for an extensive period, arrived in Constantinople, the empire's capital. He claimed expertise in sericulture and offered to procure silkworm eggs for Justinian. After striking a deal with the Roman Emperor, the monk journeyed back to China.
Two years later, he returned clandestinely carrying silkworm eggs concealed within a hollow cane. This successful retrieval enabled the Romans to initiate their own production of raw silk.
公元7世纪时,西亚地区被阿拉伯帝国占领,公元751年,阿拉伯人的军队与唐朝大将高仙芝率领的部队在今哈萨克斯坦境内的怛罗斯河一带发生了战争,结果唐军战败, 军中一些丝绸织工和造纸工被俘, 中国的丝织工艺和造纸术很可能由此传入了西亚地区。8世纪时,西亚地区的养蚕业及丝织作坊发生了突飞猛进的发展,出现了许多从事缫丝、纺织、印染和刺绣的城市, 波斯地区成了继中国之后的世界第二大丝绸业产地。波斯的丝绸产品不仅满足了西亚场的需求,而且开始供应地中海地区的欧洲市场。9世纪,阿拉伯帝国吞并了西班牙。养蚕方法被阿拉伯人介绍到了西班牙,12世纪时又传到意大利,15世纪时再由意大利传到了法国。
During the 7th century, West Asia fell under the rule of the Arab Empire. A significant battle erupted in 751 between the Arab army and the Tang army, led by General Gao Xianzhi, in the Talas River area, situated in present-day Kazakhstan. The Tang army suffered defeat, leading to the capture of silk weavers and paper workers among the Tang soldiers. It's highly likely that this event facilitated the dissemination of Chinese silk weaving and papermaking technologies to West Asia. As a consequence, in the 8th century, workshops dedicated to sericulture and silk weaving experienced rapid growth in West Asia.
Numerous cities emerged specializing in trades such as silk reeling, textile production, printing, and embroidery. The Persian region notably became the world's second-largest silk-producing area, trailing only behind China. Persian silk goods not only met the demands of markets within West Asia but also supplied the European market, particularly in the Mediterranean region. In the 9th century, with the Arab Empire's annexation of Spain, sericulture found its way to the Iberian Peninsula. Subsequently, in the 12th century, sericulture was introduced to Italy, followed by its introduction to France in the 15th century.
茶叶的西传
Westward Dissemination of Tea
茶是中国内地的特产,产区基本限于江淮地区和长江以南。茶叶传入西域的时间大约在唐代。唐高祖武德八年(625),突厥、吐谷浑等西北少数民族请求与唐朝互市,获得允准。唐王朝用于互市的主要商品就是内地所产的丝织品和茶叶。唐太宗在位期间,青藏高原上的吐著人逐渐崛起。贞观十五年(641),吐蕃国王松赞干布向唐太宗请求和亲,太宗将16岁的文成公主嫁给松赞干布。文成公主进吐蕃时,带去了大量的农耕器具、农作物种子、医疗器械、各类书籍,以及包括茶叶在内的生活用品。安史之乱爆发后,吐蕃人趁机占领了西域地区,茶叶在整个西域地区传播开来。茶叶有生津止渴、帮助消化的功效,对于以肉、奶为主要食物的西北游牧民族来说是最好的佐食饮料,所以传入西域后备受青睐。10—12世纪,茶叶传到了高昌、于阗等地区,并且有可能经由于阗和印度传入波斯。元代的饮食医药著作《饮膳正要》中记载,“西番茶,味苦涩,煎用酥油”,反映了西北少数民族的饮食特点。13世纪蒙古崛起的初期,茶叶还是蒙古上层贵族的珍稀之物。14世纪以后,蒙古人逐渐饮茶成习,茶叶也进一步由西域继续西传。到了明代,朝廷建立了官营的茶马贸易体制,在今天甘肃的天水、临潭、临夏和四川雅安等地设了统管茶马交易的茶马司,意在通过控制茶叶贸易来制约西域各民族。饮茶之风已经进入了西域各族人的日常生活,并且影响到了中亚。
Tea, initially a specialty of inland China, was historically cultivated in regions along the Yangzi River, the Huai River, and areas south of the Yangzi. Its introduction to the Western Regions occurred during the Tang Dynasty. In the 8th year of Gaozu's reign (625), ethnic groups from the northwestern territories, like the Turks and Tuyuhuns, sought permission from the Tang Dynasty for mutual trade, primarily involving silk products and tea.
During Emperor Taizong's rule, a significant development emerged with the rising influence of Tibetans on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. In the 15th year of the Zhenguan Period (641), the Tibetan King Songtsen Gampo proposed marriage to a Tang princess, Princess Wencheng. Emperor Taizong agreed, and upon her arrival in Tibet, Princess Wencheng brought along various farming tools, crop seeds, medical equipment, books, and everyday items, including tea.
The spread of tea throughout the Western Regions gained momentum after the Tibetans capitalized on the chaos following the An Lushan rebellion, leading to their occupation of these territories. Tea's popularity grew due to its ability to quench thirst and aid digestion, making it an ideal beverage for nomads in the northwestern region who primarily consumed meat and milk.
Between the 10th and 12th centuries, tea extended its reach to Gaochang and Khotan, potentially reaching Persia via Yutian and India. Descriptions in the Yuan Dynasty's "Principles of Correct Diet" noted that Tibetan tea was bitter and tangy and could be prepared by frying it with butter, reflecting the dietary preferences of the northwestern ethnic groups.
During the Mongol rise in the 13th century, tea remained a luxury for Mongol elites. It wasn't until the 14th century that tea became a popular drink among ordinary Mongols and expanded beyond the Western Regions.
In the Ming Dynasty, the imperial court established a Tea-Horse Trading System, creating agencies in Tianshui, Lintan, Linxia in Gansu, and Ya'an in Sichuan to regulate the trade. The government aimed to control ethnic groups in the Western Regions through this trade system. Tea-drinking had already integrated into the daily lives of people in these regions, influencing the cultural practices of Central Asians.
造纸术的西传
Westward Dissemination of Paper making Technology
中国的造纸术最早出现在西汉时期,而东汉的宦官蔡伦改进了造纸的方法,使造纸术得以进一步推广。中国纸张的西传非常早,敦煌及甘肃西部都发现过汉代的原始麻纸。而造纸术传入中亚通常认为是在唐玄宗天宝年间(742—756)。唐朝的造纸工匠最先在撒马尔罕造纸,这里从此成为中国境外的造纸中心。794年,大食(阿拉伯帝国) 的都城巴格达也办起了造纸厂,并聘请中国的造纸工匠进行指导。此后,造纸厂相继出现在也门、大马士革等阿拉伯地区和城市。9世纪末,中国造纸术传入埃及,不久便淘汰了当地的纸草。12 世纪,造纸术从北非传到西班牙与法国,德国的纽伦堡也于1391年建造了第一家造纸厂。纸的发明与西传对促进欧洲近代文明的发展具有不可估量的意义。
Paper-making technology in China originated during the Western Han Dynasty, but it was notably refined by Cai Lun, a eunuch from the Eastern Han era, leading to its widespread adoption. The westward transmission of Chinese paper occurred quite early. Primitive hemp-based paper dating back to the Han Dynasty has been unearthed in Dunhuang and western Gansu.
It's commonly understood that the introduction of paper-making technology to Central Asia happened during the Tianbao Period of the Tang Dynasty under Emperor Xuanzong's rule (742-756). Tang Dynasty artisans first established paper production in Samarkand, transforming it into a major paper manufacturing center beyond Chinese borders. In 794, a paper mill was established in Baghdad, the capital of the Dashi Kingdom (part of the Arab Empire), inviting Chinese paper-making experts to serve as advisors. Subsequently, paper mills emerged in Yemen, Damascus, and other Arab regions and cities. By the late 9th century, Chinese paper-making technology reached Egypt, gradually supplanting local straw-based paper.
During the 12th century, this technology spread from North Africa to Spain and France. Nuremberg in Germany inaugurated its initial paper mill in 1391. The invention of paper and its dissemination westward had an immense impact on the development of European civilization in modern times.
印刷术的西传
Westward Dissemination of Printing Technology
印刷术也是起源于中国的“四大发明”之一,最迟出现在唐代。发现于敦煌藏经洞的《金刚般若波罗蜜经》是现存较早的雕版印书, 上面标明的印刷年代是“咸通九年四月十五日”,即公元868年。北宋时期,工匠毕昇发明用胶泥刻成泥活字,发明了活字印刷术;元代工匠王桢又于1313年创制了木活字, 使印刷的效率大大提高。
Printing technology, regarded as one of China's "four great inventions" in ancient times, made its appearance during the Tang Dynasty. The earliest surviving woodblock printed book in the world, the Diamond Sutra, was discovered in the Dunhuang Cave, where Buddhist scriptures were stored. This particular sutra was dated to "April 15, 9th year of Xiantong Period (868)."
During the Northern Song Dynasty, craftsman Bi Sheng introduced clay-carved movable types, a significant advancement that marked the beginning of movable type printing technology. Wang Zhen, a craftsman from the Yuan Dynasty, further enhanced this innovation by inventing wood movable types in 1313. This improvement greatly enhanced the efficiency of printing technology.
雕版印刷术很早就传到了朝鲜与日本,但是西传的时间则要晚得多。据推测,中国的雕版印刷术很可能是在宋元之际,在蒙古骑兵沿着丝绸之路向西征讨的过程中,传到中亚、西亚,进而传到北非与欧洲的。14世纪初,伊利汗国的史家拉施都丁在《史集》中记录了中国的雕版印刷方法。14世纪末到15世纪初,欧洲开始出现了用木版雕印的纸牌、宗教画、宗教书籍和学生用拉丁文法课本等。现存最早的欧洲版画印刷品,是刻印于1423年的《圣克利斯道夫像》木版画。这幅在德国南部刻印的版画,其印剧方法和中国的雕版印刷完全相同。到15世纪中期,雕版印刷术在欧洲已相当普遍。在1440—1448年之间, 德国人谷登堡发明了铅活字印刷, 但这一发明比毕异的泥活字已晚了约400年。谷登堡对活字印刷术的一整套革新技术,奠定了现代印刷术的基础。有些西方史学家认为,谷登堡的这一发明受到中国活字印刷术的影响。
Woodblock printing technology indeed reached Korea and Japan earlier than it did the Western regions. Speculatively, woodblock printing might have been introduced to Central and West Asia, North Africa, and Europe during the Song and Yuan Dynasties, possibly due to the Mongol expeditions along the Silk Road towards the West.
In the early 14th century, Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, a historian from the Ilkhanate, described the Chinese woodblock printing method in his book "Collection of History." Later in the 14th and early 15th centuries, woodblock printed materials, including religious paintings, books, and Latin textbooks, began appearing in Europe. The earliest surviving European woodcut painting, the Portrait of Saint Christophe, was engraved and printed in 1423 in southern Germany, utilizing the same method as Chinese woodblock printing.
By the mid-15th century, woodblock printing had gained significant popularity in Europe. Between 1440 and 1448, a German named Gutenberg invented the lead movable type printing method, a development occurring four centuries after Bi Sheng's invention of the clay movable type method. Gutenberg's invention laid the groundwork for modern printing technology. Some Western historians suggest that Gutenberg's innovation might have been influenced by Chinese movable type printing technology.
火药的西传
Westward Dissemination of Gunpowder
中国是火药和早期火药武器的诞生地。最早的火药是指以硝石、硫黄和木炭按一定比例配合而成的一种混合物。唐宋时期,中国人制造出了具有燃烧和杀伤作用的火器,并且大量使用在战争中。13世纪,在蒙古大军沿丝绸之路向西征讨的过程中,火药配方和火器的制造技术也直接或通过阿拉伯人间接传入了欧洲。蒙古军队中配有专门的炮火军,携带火铳、火箭、喷火枪、炸弹等火器,以配合骑兵攻城和大规模野战。1235年,蒙古军队第二次西征,15万铁骑长驱突进, 攻下梁赞、莫斯科、基辅等地后兵分三路,北路蒙古军进攻波兰、日耳曼东南部。日耳曼与波兰组成的联军被蒙古军打得惨败。当时就传说蒙古军中有口吐烟雾的怪物,还使用了“中国龙喷火简”—能发出喷着火焰的火龙。初次见识这些火器的欧洲骑士不明真相,感到极度的震撼。
China indeed holds the origins of gunpowder and early gunpowder-based weaponry. The earliest form of gunpowder was a blend of saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal in specific proportions. During the Tang and Song Dynasties, the Chinese employed firearms with incendiary and lethal effects on a significant scale in warfare.
In the 13th century, concurrent with the Mongol armies' expeditions along the Silk Road towards the West, the knowledge of gunpowder formula and firearm manufacturing technology spread to Europe, either directly or indirectly through Arab intermediaries. The Mongol troops had a specialized artillery division equipped with firearms like handguns, flame arrows, flamethrowers, bombs, and more, aiding their cavalry and large-scale military operations.
In 1235, the Mongol army launched a second expedition Westward. A force of 150,000 cavalry moved towards the West, capturing Ryazan, Moscow, Kiev, and other regions. Subsequently, the Mongol cavalry split into three routes, with the northern route heading towards Poland and southwest Germany. The allied forces of Germany and Poland faced a decisive defeat. Reports from that time speculated that the Mongols possessed smoke-spewing monsters and utilized the "Chinese dragon flame tube," capable of emitting flames. European knights witnessing these firearms for the first time were utterly astonished and taken aback by their capabilities.
1258年,在手持火器的蒙古大军进攻下,阿拉伯帝国阿巴期斯王朝的都城巴格达陷落。阿拉伯帝国灭亡后,蒙古人建立的伊利汗国迅速成为火药等中国科技向西方传播的枢纽。元朝不禁止火器出口,蒙古军还在阿拉伯人和欧洲人中招募士兵,欧洲人因此得以掌握了火药制造技术。14世纪以后,欧洲出现了火铳、火箭、喷火枪、手榴弹、炸弹和焰火等火器,都是根据中国技术或样器仿制的。
In 1258, the Mongol army, armed with firearms, attacked and conquered Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Arab Empire. Following the downfall of the Arab Empire, the Mongols established the Ilkhanate Kingdom, which swiftly became a central point for the dissemination of gunpowder, Chinese science, and technology to the West. The Yuan Dynasty did not restrict the export of firearms, and the Mongol army recruited soldiers from Arab and European regions. These actions contributed to Europeans staying updated with advancements in gunpowder manufacturing technology.
After the 14th century, Europe began producing firearms like handguns, flame arrows, flamethrowers, hand grenades, bombs, and fireworks. These were either based on Chinese technology or were imitations of Chinese models. The knowledge and technology shared through Mongol-controlled territories played a crucial role in advancing European firearm production.
>西方技术与文化的东传
> Eastward Dissemination of Western Technology and Culture
张骞出使西域,带回了西域的优良马种——汗血宝马,还有一些今天中国人生活中最常见的农作物。同时我们的丝织品和铸铁的方法也传到欧洲。而经由丝绸之路,许多西方的工艺、宗教、艺术传入中国,对中国文化的发展影响非常大。
Envoy Zhang Qian's return from the Western Regions brought valuable items to the Central Plains, including the prized Ferghana horse and several crops that are now commonly cultivated. Concurrently, Chinese silk products and cast iron technology were introduced to Europe. The Silk Road facilitated the exchange of various Western crafts, religions, and arts into China, leaving a significant imprint on the development and evolution of Chinese culture.
熬糖术的传入
Introduction of Sugar Processing Technology into Central Plains
印度次大陆是世界甘蔗的发源地之一,也是最早发明蔗糖加工技术的国家。据文献记载,在中国的西汉时期,印度一带就已经出现了熬制蔗糖的技术。而中国的甘蔗种植虽始于春秋战国时期,但当时只会将甘蔗榨汁或直接食用,并未掌握制糖技术。西晋史学家司马彪在《续汉书》中记载:“天竺国出石蜜。”这种“石蜜”就是蔗糖,曾是西域进贡中原的珍品,只有皇室贵族才能享用。敦煌残卷中也有一段关于古印度制糖术的记载,提到印度出产甘蔗,可造最上等的“煞割令”,即蔗糖。唐朝时,唐太宗派使臣王玄策等人经丝绸之路前往古印度学习熬糖术,并下令在扬州地区大面积种植甘蔗,用于试制蔗糖,结果“色味愈西域远甚”(《新唐书·西域传》)。唐代以后,中国的制糖技术不断提高,品质不断改进。中国人还在印度红糖制造技术的基础上不断改进,于明代发明了红糖脱色技术,制造出了白糖
India, known as one of the origins of sugar canes, pioneered sucrose brewing technology, making it the first country to invent this method. Historical records indicate that sucrose brewing technology emerged in India during China's Western Han Dynasty. While China cultivated sugar canes as early as the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods, they primarily consumed the canes directly or extracted juice from them, lacking mastery in sugar production.
Sima Biao, a historian from the Western Jin Dynasty, noted in his book "Han Book Continued" that "solid honey" was produced in the Tianzhu Kingdom, referring to "sucrose." This sucrose was a precious tribute from the Western Regions to the Central Plains dynasties and was exclusively enjoyed by the imperial family and aristocrats.
An ancient document fragment found in Dunhuang described Indian sugar processing technology, stating that India could produce sugar canes and create the finest sucrose. Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty sent envoy Wang Xuance to ancient India to study sugar refining technology. He also ordered large-scale cultivation of sugar canes in the Yangzhou region to experiment with sucrose production. However, the sucrose produced in Yangzhou fell short in both color and texture compared to that made in the Western Regions (as recorded in "The Tang Book Updates - Story of Western Regions").
China's sugar technology progressed during the Tang Dynasty, enhancing the quality of sucrose significantly. Through continuous innovation based on brown sugar manufacturing, craftsmen in the Ming Dynasty developed bleaching techniques, enabling the production of white cane sugar.
琉璃的传入
Introduction of Glass into Centra Plains
琉璃亦作“流离”、“瑙璃”,在中国古籍中记载的琉璃往往是西方的特产。其在中原地区的出现是与丝绸之路上商旅的往来密不可分。唐初的学者颜师古引史书《魏略》说:“大秦国出赤、白、黑、黄、绿、红、紫等十种流离。”其中的“大秦”指东罗马帝国,这里所说的“流离”应当就是一种玻璃。据考证,最早的玻璃出现在公元前5000年,发明者是生活在两河流域的苏美尔人。到公元前2000年的时候,地中海东岸的腓尼基人将玻璃制作技术传到了埃及, 而埃及人则将玻璃的制作工艺发挥到了淋漓尽致的地步。早在公元前1000年,西方的玻璃珠就已经传入了中国的新疆地区。随着丝绸之路的正式开通,到了公元5世纪,中亚地区的玻璃制造技术随着大月氏商人传入了中国。
Glass had various names in the Chinese language and was often considered a specialty originating from the West. Its presence in the Central Plains was closely tied to trade and travel along the Silk Road. Early Tang scholars, such as Yan Shigu, referenced historical texts like "Wei Strategy," quoting descriptions such as: "The Daqin Empire produces glass of ten colors including red, white, black, yellow, green, orange, and purple." In this context, "Daqin" refers to the Eastern Roman Empire.
Research indicates that glass was initially invented by the Sumerians in the Mesopotamia region around 5000 B.C. By 2000 B.C., Phoenicians, residing along the eastern Mediterranean, passed on glass-making techniques to the Egyptians, who further refined the technology to an advanced stage. As early as 1000 B.C., glass beads originating from the Western Regions made their way into China's Xinjiang area.
With the formal establishment of the Silk Road and by the 5th century, glass manufacturing technology was introduced to China by Dayuezhi traders from Central Asia. This facilitated the flow of glass-making expertise from the West to China, contributing to the cultural exchange and trade dynamics along the Silk Road.
西域物产的传入
Introduction of Resources and Products from Western Regions
自从张赛出使西域之后,西域诸国的物产大量传入内地。汉武帝时期引进的汗血马是最驰名的品种之一。这种优良马种体格魁伟, 四足纤细,胸颈和臀部都十分发达。此外,还有大象、狮子、安息雀(即鸵鸟)等也陆续传入内地在植物方面,葡萄、苜蓿、胡麻、胡豆、胡蒜、胡瓜(即黄瓜)、胡桃、胡葱、巴旦杏等数十种作物相继东传,印度的胡椒、安息的石榴等也先后传入中国。特别是棉花的传入,对中国经济发展和百姓生活都产生了极其深远的影响。
Since Zhang Qian's expeditions to the Western Regions, a plethora of resources and products from countries in that region have entered inland China in significant quantities. Among the notable introductions during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty was the famous Ferghana horse, renowned for its robust build, slender legs, and well-developed chest, neck, and hindquarters.
Additionally, various animal species, including elephants, lions, and ostriches, were introduced to inland China during this time. In terms of plants, over several dozen varieties made their way to the eastern inland areas. These included grapes, alfalfa, flax, beans, garlic, cucumbers, walnuts, onions, almonds, Indian pepper, and pomegranates from Anxi. Of particular significance was the introduction of cotton to inland areas, which had a profound impact on China's economic development and people's livelihoods.
棉花原产于印度和非洲,中国最早植棉的地区是新疆地区。最迟在东汉时期,新疆地区就已经开始种植棉花和用棉线织布了。棉花传入之前, 中国人传统衣着是穿裘皮、丝绸或麻布。唐代时,唐军平定高昌,取棉种移植内地,棉花才逐渐传入中原其他地区。目前中原地区所见到的最早的棉纺织品遗物,是在一座南宋古墓中发现的一条棉线毯。到了元代,棉布已成为中原百姓主要的纺织衣料了。
Cotton originally thrived in India and Africa. In China, the earliest evidence of cotton cultivation was discovered in the Xinjiang region. By the Eastern Han Dynasty at the latest, Xinjiang was actively involved in growing cotton, spinning yarns, and weaving cotton fabrics. Before the introduction of cotton in China, traditional clothing materials primarily consisted of fur, silk, and linen.
During the Tang Dynasty, after suppressing the Gaochang unrest, Tang troops brought cotton seeds inland for cultivation. This marked the gradual introduction of cotton to other parts of the Central Plains. The oldest existing cotton relic from the Central Plains is a cotton blanket unearthed from a Southern Song Dynasty tomb. By the Yuan Dynasty, cotton had become the predominant material for clothing among the people of the Central Plains.
西域乐舞的传入
Introduction of Music and Dance from Western Regions
丝绸之路的开通还使西域与中原的音乐文化得以交流,西域民族的乐器和乐舞开始传入中原,受到汉族人民的喜爱。
The Silk Road's establishment fostered the exchange of musical culture between the Western Regions and the Central Plains. This led to the introduction of Western ethnic musical instruments, music, and dance into the Central Plains, which were embraced and cherished by the Han people.
魏晋时期,随着社会的分裂动荡和各民族的迁徙融合,西域乐器和乐舞大量经由丝绸之路传入内地。公元386—432年,后凉吕光大败龟兹军队,俘获的战利品中便有着一支完整的龟兹乐队。据《太平御览》引《乐志》载,这支乐队共有20个乐工,使用的乐器有竖箜篌、琵琶、五弦、笙、笛、箫、筚篥、毛员鼓、都昙鼓、答腊鼓、腰鼓、羯鼓、鸡娄鼓、铜钹、贝等15种。
During the Wei and Jin dynasties, social upheavals led to the migration and reintegration of various ethnic groups. Consequently, a significant influx of music and dance from the Western Regions entered the inland areas through the Silk Road.
Between the years 386 and 432, Li Guang of Later Liang defeated Qiuci. Among the spoils of victory was a complete Qiuci band. Described in the Music Chapter of "Works for the Emperor" (Tai Ping Yu Lan), this band comprised twenty musicians playing fifteen types of musical instruments. These instruments included the vertical harp, pipa (a four-stringed Chinese lute), five-stringed instruments, Sheng (a Chinese wind instrument), flute, panpipe, Tartar pipe, Maoyuan drum, Dutan drum, Sumatra drum, waist drum, Jie drum, chicken basket drum, cymbals, conch, and more.
公元568年,北周武帝宇文题娶阿史那公主为皇后,突厥可汗将一支由龟兹、疏勒、康国、安国等地组成的300人的庞大西域乐队作为女儿的陪嫁,送至长安,同时派遣著名龟兹乐工苏袛婆、白智通等作为随从人员前去中原地区,从而使西域音乐对中原音乐产生了一定影响。
In 568, during the reign of Yuwen Yong, Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou Dynasty, his marriage to Princess Ashina led to a significant cultural exchange. As part of her dowry, the Turkish Khan sent a Western Region orchestra consisting of over three hundred musicians from Qiuci, Shule, Kangguo, and Anguo. Alongside this orchestra, the Khan also dispatched Su Zhipo and Bai Zhitong, two renowned Qiuci musicians, to accompany the princess to Chang'an. This cultural exchange had a notable impact on the music of the Central Plains.
隋唐时期,国家统一,经济繁荣,宫廷歌舞乐得以发展。在隋朝宫廷中有“九部乐”的演奏,其中就有龟兹乐、疏勒乐、康国乐、安国乐和西凉乐等西域音乐。唐朝宫廷乐舞继承了隋朝的“九部乐”规制,在公元642年又将《高昌乐》列入,从而成为众所周知的“十部乐”制,至此,国家最高规格的宫廷乐舞中,西域乐舞竟占了半数之多。在这十部伎乐中,《龟兹乐》无疑最具影响力,深受公卿贵族与普通民众的喜爱。除乐曲外,琵琶、签篌、鼓、角等西域传统乐器也大放异彩,成为唐代以及后世音乐演奏中的重要乐器。
During the Sui and Tang dynasties, a period marked by national unity and economic prosperity, the court music and dance flourished. The Sui Dynasty established the "nine music" system for banquets and ceremonies, which included music from the Western Regions like Qiuci, Shule, Kangguo, Anguo, and Western Liang.
Building upon the foundation laid by the Sui Dynasty, the Tang court expanded the system in 642 by incorporating Gaochang music, creating the renowned "ten music" system. This program, representing the country's most prestigious music and dance, highlighted contributions from the Western Regions, constituting half of the system. Among these works, "Qiuci music" stood out as particularly influential, appealing to both the nobility and the common people.
Alongside musical compositions, traditional instruments from the Western Regions—such as the pipa, harp, drums, horns, and others—brought a unique brilliance and became essential components in musical performances since the Tang Dynasty. These instruments played a significant role in shaping and enriching the musical landscape of that era.
隋唐时期,西域舞蹈也在内地流行开来。西域舞蹈风格多样,最著名的当属胡腾舞、胡旋舞、柘枝舞三种。胡腾舞采用男子独舞的形式,动作以闪转跳跃为主,充满阳刚之气。而胡旋舞以动作急速旋转而得名,唐代诗人白居易曾以“左旋右转不知疲,千匝万周无已时”的诗句来形容。胡旋舞的表演者多为女性,据说舞技精湛者可以在滚动的圆球上旋转如飞。由于唐玄宗格外喜好胡旋舞,官女们“臣妾人人学圆转”,甚至连后来挑起“安史之乱”的胡人节度使安禄山也精于此舞。柘枝舞舞姿矫健,节奏明快,变化多端,最初是单人舞,后发展成双人舞和多人舞。
During the Sui and Tang dynasties, Western region dances gained popularity in inland areas, showcasing various styles, among which the Huteng dance, Huxuan dance, and Zhezhi dance were the most renowned.
The Huteng dance, a male solo performance, featured dynamic movements with flashing urns and vigorous jumps, exuding a strong sense of masculinity.
Huxuan dance, on the other hand, was distinguished by its rapid spinning. Tang Dynasty poets described dancers spinning tirelessly, effortlessly completing thousands of rotations without pause. Most Huxuan dancers were female, and it was believed that an exceptional dancer could spin on a rolling ball. Emperor Yuanzong of the Tang Dynasty particularly favored Huxuan dance, leading to court ladies learning the skill of spinning on their feet. Notably, even An Lushan, a rebel leader from the northern and western regions of China who initiated the "Anshi Rebellion" while serving as a military and administrative official, was known for his expertise in Huxuan dance.
Zhezhi dance was a lively and dynamic performance, characterized by its vigor and fast-paced movements. Initially a solo dance, it later evolved into a pas de deux (a dance for two people) and a group dance, showcasing its adaptability and development over time.
元朝时期,由于皇室成员本身便是少数民族出身,官廷乐府沿用西域少数民族的乐器更是合情合理。其乐曲大致分为大曲与小曲二类。大曲中《达罕》(亦称《白翎雀》)的作曲者便是大名鼎鼎的西域乐工硕德閭。
During the Yuan Dynasty, as the imperial family comprised offspring from various ethnic minorities, it was customary for court musicians to showcase musical instruments from the Western Regions. Yuan music was broadly categorized into major and minor pieces. Among the minor pieces, there was a composition called "Dahan" (also known as "white tail bird"), attributed to the renowned musician from the Western Regions, Shuo Delü.